目錄
第1章 緒論 1
1.1 光閃爍方法通量觀測發(fā)展簡史 2
1.2 閃爍儀特征尺度參數(shù)及主要類型 4
1.3 光閃爍方法與渦動相關方法的比較 5
第2章 大氣邊界層與大氣湍流 8
2.1 大氣邊界層 8
2.1.1 基本結構及日變化特征 8
2.1.2 運動與能量–物質收支基本方程 9
2.2 大氣湍流特征與湍流動能收支 12
2.2.1 大氣湍流特征與柯爾莫果洛夫湍流基礎理論 12
2.2.2 大氣湍流動能的生成 14
2.2.3 湍流動能收支方程 15
2.2.4 溫度方差收支方程 16
2.3 大氣湍流的統(tǒng)計分析 17
2.3.1 時間序列與空間序列 17
2.3.2 統(tǒng)計矩 17
2.3.3 相關函數(shù) 19
2.3.4 結構函數(shù)與結構參數(shù) 20
2.3.5 傅里葉分析 22
2.3.6 湍流譜 24
第3章 近地層大氣的通量輸送與相似理論 35
3.1 地表能量平衡 35
3.2 通量輸送的K理論與波文比方法 37
3.2.1 K 理論？湍流擴散系數(shù) 38
3.2.2 波文比方法 39
3.3 渦動相關方法 40
3.3.1 原理與觀測系統(tǒng) 41
3.3.2 數(shù)據(jù)處理中的幾個關鍵問題 46
3.3.3 質量控制和質量評價 49
3.3.4 通量的誤差和不確定性 50
3.4 莫寧–奧布霍夫相似理論（MOST）及其應用 52
3.4.1 大氣穩(wěn)定度 52
3.4.2 量綱分析與相似理論 54
3.4.3 莫寧–奧布霍夫相似理論 55
3.4.4 幾個常用近地層統(tǒng)計量的相似關系 56
3.4.5 標量（溫度、濕度等）相似性問題 62
3.4.6 基于通量梯度相似關系的一些推論及幾個模式重要參數(shù)的導出 64
3.4.7 自由對流下的通量相似關系 68
3.5 摻混高度概念 70
第4章 湍流大氣中的波傳播與光閃爍方法的基礎理論 72
4.1 湍流大氣中光的散射 72
4.2 折射指數(shù)的結構參數(shù)與功率譜 74
4.2.1 空氣的折射指數(shù) 74
4.2.2 折射指數(shù)的空間結構參數(shù) 75
4.2.3 折射指數(shù)的功率譜 76
4.3 波傳播方程與光閃爍基本公式的推導 78
4.3.1 折射指數(shù)的電磁學意義 78
4.3.2 麥克斯韋方程組及簡化的電磁場波動方程 79
4.3.3 波動方程求解的平緩擾動（Rytov）方法 79
4.3.4 擾動場強方程的解——光閃爍基本公式 81
4.4 光閃爍基本公式的擴展分析 83
4.4.1 接收端對數(shù)光強方差 83
4.4.2 湍流內尺度的影響 84
4.4.3 空間權重函數(shù) 85
4.4.4 強湍流條件下對數(shù)光幅方差的飽和問題 87
4.4.5 孔徑平均效應與大孔徑閃爍儀 91
4.4.6 水汽吸收問題和對數(shù)光強時序譜 94
4.4.7 空氣折射指數(shù)的結構參數(shù)及其與溫度、濕度的結構參數(shù)的關系 102
4.4.8 溫度、濕度結構參數(shù)的相似關系——不同相似函數(shù)對通量計算的影響 104
4.4.9 橫風風速的確定 106
第5章 幾種主要光閃爍儀的系統(tǒng)配置及外場應用 110
5.1 概述 110
5.2 小孔徑激光閃爍儀 111
5.2.1 系統(tǒng)配置與技術規(guī)格 111
5.2.2 相關理論與通量計算 112
5.2.3 硬件與軟件 118
5.2.4 站點選擇與安裝 119
5.2.5 質量控制要點 119
5.3 大孔徑閃爍儀 121
5.3.1 大孔徑閃爍儀的研發(fā)簡史及幾種主要類型 121
5.3.2 基本理論與通量計算 126
5.3.3 硬件與軟件 134
5.3.4 站點選擇與安裝 135
5.3.5 質量控制要點 135
5.4 微波閃爍儀及雙波段光閃爍儀（OMS）系統(tǒng) 136
5.4.1 微波閃爍儀及光學–微波雙波段閃爍儀系統(tǒng)的早期研發(fā) 136
5.4.2 微波閃爍儀研制的主要難點及波段的選擇 137
5.4.3 RPG-MWSC微波閃爍儀及雙波段閃爍儀（OMS）系統(tǒng) 138
5.4.4 RPG-MWSC-160的硬件配置 139
5.4.5 RPG MWSC軟件 140
5.4.6 RPG MWSC的數(shù)據(jù)輸出 142
第6章 雙波段閃爍儀的數(shù)據(jù)處理 144
6.1 概述 144
6.2 原始數(shù)據(jù)預處理 145
6.2.1 RPG-OMS的原始數(shù)據(jù)時間序列 145
6.2.2 數(shù)據(jù)缺失判別 146
6.2.3 數(shù)據(jù)離群值如“野點”及“掉包”的剔除 147
6.2.4 原始光強數(shù)據(jù)的高通（或帶通）濾波 150
6.3 雙波段閃爍儀通量計算原理與基本步驟 153
6.3.1 加高通濾波的對數(shù)光強方差計算 153
6.3.2 由對數(shù)光強方差與協(xié)方差計算折射指數(shù)結構參數(shù) 153
6.3.3 溫度結構參數(shù)CTT和濕度結構參數(shù)Cqq的推算 155
6.3.4 溫、濕度結構參數(shù)的相似關系 160
6.3.5 感熱通量和潛熱通量的計算 162
6.3.6 自由對流條件下的湍流通量估算 163
6.3.7 光程有效高度 164
6.4 由觀測到通量計算的質量控制 169
第7章 閃爍儀通量觀測的足跡分析 172
7.1 概念與定義 172
7.1.1 通量足跡的基本概念 172
7.1.2 影響通量足跡（footprint）的主要因子 174
7.1.3 通量的氣候學足跡 176
7.1.4 光閃爍儀的通量足跡 177
7.2 通量足跡模式 178
7.2.1 概述 178
7.2.2 解析模式 180
7.2.3 拉格朗日隨機模式及其參數(shù)化的解析模式 185
7.2.4 基于納維–斯托克斯方程的復雜模式 191
7.2.5 足跡模式的比較與驗證 193
7.3 足跡模式在通量觀測中的應用 195
7.3.1 通量站點位置與觀測高度等的選擇 195
7.3.2 通量觀測的數(shù)據(jù)分析和質量控制 195
7.3.3 基于通量足跡的閃爍儀與渦動相關通量觀測的對比分析 196
7.3.4 利用通量足跡做觀測的尺度擴展 198
第8章 光閃爍方法近30 年來的發(fā)展、應用與展望 204
8.1 觀測系統(tǒng)的主要發(fā)展 204
8.1.1 光學小孔徑閃爍儀 204
8.1.2 大孔徑閃爍儀和超大孔徑閃爍儀 205
8.1.3 微波閃爍儀 205
8.2 基礎理論研究與數(shù)據(jù)處理方法的主要進展 206
8.2.1 閃爍儀基本方程的更深入理解與成熟應用 206
8.2.2 對莫寧–奧布霍夫相似理論的進一步理解及新的溫濕度結構參數(shù)
相似函數(shù)的擬合 208
8.2.3 由雙波段閃爍儀觀測計算溫、濕度結構參數(shù)的“雙波長相關方法” 209
8.2.4 光閃爍方法觀測與分析中足跡函數(shù)的應用 210
8.2.5 理論分析與數(shù)據(jù)處理的其它進展 210
8.3 30 年來光閃爍方法在不同下墊面上的應用 211
8.3.1 在較均勻下墊面上的應用及與渦動相關方法的比較 211
8.3.2 非均勻陸面的應用 213
8.3.3 城市復雜下墊面光閃爍儀的應用 216
8.3.4 水面及水陸交界區(qū)光閃爍儀的應用 217
8.3.5 遙感模式的地表“真值” 219
8.4 結論與展望 221
附錄1 點光源對數(shù)光幅方差及折射指數(shù)結構參數(shù)等計算式的推導 225
附錄2 1990 年以來光閃爍方法的主要發(fā)展與應用研究 230
致謝 234
推薦閱讀專著 235
縮寫與符號 236
參考文獻 240
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 A Brief History of Scintillometry in Flux Observations 2
1.2 Characteristic Scale Parameters and Main Types of Scintillometers 4
1.3 A Comparison of Scintillometry and Eddy-Covariance Method 5
Chapter 2 Atmospheric Boundary Layer and Atmospheric Turbulence 8
2.1 Atmospheric Boundary layer 8
2.1.1 Basic Structure and Diurnal Variation Characteristics 8
2.1.2 Basic Equations of Motion and Energy-Mass Budget 9
2.2 Atmospheric Turbulence Characteristics and Turbulence Kinetic Energy Budget 12
2.2.1 Atmospheric Turbulence and Kolmogorov Turbulence Theory 12
2.2.2 Productions of Atmospheric Turbulence Kinetic Energy 14
2.2.3 Turbulence Kinetic Energy Budget Equation 15
2.2.4 Temperature Variance Budget Equation 16
2.3 Statistics of Atmospheric Turbulence 17
2.3.1 Time Series and Spatial Series 17
2.3.2 Statistical Moment 17
2.3.3 Correlation Function 19
2.3.4 Structure Function and Structure Parameter 20
2.3.5 Fourier Analysis 22
2.3.6 Turbulence Spectra 24
Chapter 3 Flux Transport and Similarity Theory in Atmospheric Surface Layer 35
3.1 Surface Energy Balance 35
3.2 K-Theory and Bowen Ratio Method in Flux Transport 37
3.2.1 K-Theory-Turbulent Diffusion Coefficient 38
3.2.2 Bowen Ratio Method 39
3.3 Eddy-Covariance Method 40
3.3.1 Theory and Observation System 41
3.3.2 Several Key Issues in Data Processing 46
3.3.3 Quality Control and Quality Evaluation 49
3.3.4 Errors and Uncertainties in Flux Estimates 50
3.4 Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory (MOST) and Application 52
3.4.1 Atmospheric Stability 52
3.4.2 Dimension Analysis and Similarity Theory 54
3.4.3 Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory 55
3.4.4 Similarity Formulae of Commonly Used Surface Layer Statistics 56
3.4.5 Scalar (Temperature, Humidity, etc.) Similarity Issues 62
3.4.6 Discussions on Flux-Gradient Similarities and the Derivation of Several Important Model Parameters 64
3.4.7 Flux Similarity Relationships under Free Convection 68
3.5 The Concept of Blending Height 70
Chapter 4 Basic Theory of Wave Propagation in Turbulent Atmosphere and Scintillometry 72
4.1 Light Scattering in Turbulent Atmosphere 72
4.2 Structural Parameter and Power Spectrum of Refractive Index of Air 74
4.2.1 Refractive Index of Air 74
4.2.2 Spatial Structure Parameters of Refractive Index 75
4.2.3 Power Spectrum of Air Refractive Index 76
4.3 Wave Propagation Equation and Derivation of Scintillometry Basic Formula 78
4.3.1 Electromagnetic Significance of Refractive Index 78
4.3.2 Maxwell Equations and The Simplified Wave Equations of Electromagnetic Field 79
4.3.3 Rytov Method for the Solution of Wave Propogation Equation 79
4.3.4 Solution of Disturbed Field Intensity Equation—The Basic Formula of Scintillometry 81
4.4 Extensions of the Basic Formula of Scintillometry 83
4.4.1 Variances of the Natural logarithm of light intensity at Receiver End 83
4.4.2 Influences of the Turbulence Inner Scale 84
4.4.3 Spatial Weight Functions 85
4.4.4 Saturation of the Variance of Logarithmic Light Amplitude in Strong Turbulence conditions 87
4.4.5 Aperture Averaging Effect and the Large Aperture Scintillometer 91
4.4.6 Water Vapor Absorption and the Temporal Spectra of Logarithmic Intensities 94
4.4.7 Structural Parameter of Air Refractive Index and Its Relation with Structural Parameters of Temperature and Humidity 102
4.4.8 Similarity Relationships of Temperature/Humidity Structural Parameters–Influences of Different Similarity Function on Flux Calculation 104
4.4.9 The Determination of Cross Wind Velocity 106
Chapter 5 Scintillometor: Major Types, System Configuration, and field Applications 110
5.1 Overview 110
5.2 Small Aperture Laser Scintillometer 111
5.2.1 System Configuration and Technical Specifications 111
5.2.2 Related Theory and Flux Calculation 112
5.2.3 Hardware and Software 118
5.2.4 Site Selection and Installation 119
5.2.5 Quality Control 119
5.3 Large Aperture Scintillometer (LAS & XLAS) 121
5.3.1 A Brief History of Developments and Major Types 121
5.3.2 Basic Theory and Flux Calculations 126
5.3.3 Hardware and Software 134
5.3.4 Site Selection and Installation 135
5.3.5 Quality Control 135
5.4 Microwave Scintillometer (MWS) and Optical-Microwave Scintillomete System (OMS) 136
5.4.1 The Early Developments of MWS and OMS 136
5.4.2 Main Difficulties in the Development of Microwave Scintillometor and the Selections of Waveband 137
5.4.3 RPG-MWSC Microwave Scintillometor and the Dual-band Scintillometer System (OMS) 138
5.4.4 RPG-MWSC-160: Hardware Configuration 139
5.4.5 RPG-MWSC: Software 140
5.4.6 RPG-MWSC: Data Outputs 142
Chapter 6 Data Processing for the Optical-Microwave Scintillometer 144
6.1 Overview 144
6.2 Raw Data Preprocessing 145
6.2.1 Raw Data Time Series of the RPG-OMS 145
6.2.2 Missing Data Discrimination 146
6.2.3 Removal of Data Outliers as "Spikes” and "Dropouts" 147
6.2.4 High-pass (or Band-pass) Filtering of Raw Light Intensities 150
6.3 Flux Calculation Principle and Basic Steps of the OMS System 153
6.3.1 Calculation of Logarithmic Intensity Variance with High-pass Filtering 153
6.3.2 Calculation of Refractive Index Structural Parameters from Variances and
Covariance of Logarithmic Light Intensities 153
6.3.3 Calculation of Temperature Structure Parameter CTT and Humidity Structure Parameter Cqq 155
6.3.4 Similarity Relationships of Temperature and Humidity Structural Parameters 160
6.3.5 Calculatio of Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes 162
6.3.6 Evaluation of turbulent fluxes under free convection 163
6.3.7 Effective Height of the Optical Path 164
6.4 Quality Control from Observation to Flux Calculations 169
Chapter 7 Footprint Analysis in Scintillometer Flux Observations 172
7.1 Concepts and Definitions 172
7.1.1 Basic Concept of Flux Footprints 172
7.1.2 Main Factors Affecting the Flux Footprint 174
7.1.3 Climatological Flux Footprints 176
7.1.4 Flux Footprint of Scintillometers 177
7.2 Flux Footprint Models 178
7.2.1 Overview 178
7.2.2 Analytical Models 180
7.2.3 Lagrangian Stochastic Models and their Parametrized Analytical Models 185
7.2.4 Complex Models Based on Navier-Stokes Equations 191
7.2.5 Comparison and Verification of Footprint Models 193
7.3 Applications of Flux Footprint in Flux Observations 195
7.3.1 Selection of Flux Station Location and Observation Height 195
7.3.2 Data Analysis and Quality Control in Flux Observation 195
7.3.3 Comparative Analysis for Scintillometer and Eddy Covariance Flux Observations Based on Flux Footprints 196
7.3.4 Scale Expansion of Observations Based on Flux Footprints 198
Chapter 8 Development, Application and Prospect of Scintillometry in Past 30 Years 204
8.1 Major Developments in Observation Systems 204
8.1.1 Optical Small Aperture Scintillometers 204
8.1.2 Large and Extra-large Aperture Scintillometesr 205
8.1.3 Microwave Scintillometers 205
8.2 Major Progresses in Basic Theoretical Research and Data Processing Method 206
8.2.1 Deeper Understanding and Mature Applications for the Basic Equations of Scintillometry 206
8.2.2 Further Understanding of Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory and the New Fitting of Similarity Functions for Temperature and Humidity Structure Parameters 208
8.2.3 New “Bichromatic correlation method” for Calculating Temperature and Humidity Structure Parameters in the Observations with OMS System 209
8.2.4 Application of Footprint Functions in the Observation and Analysis by Using Scintillometers 210
8.2.5 Other Progresses in Theoretical Analysis and Data Processing 210
8.3 Applications of Scintillometry on Different Underlying Surfaces over the Past 30 Years 211
8.3.1 Applications over Relatively Homogeneous Surface and Comparison with Eddy-covariance Method 211
8.3.2 Applications over Heterogeneous Surfaces 213
8.3.3 Applications over Urban and Suburban Areas 216
8.3.4 Applications over Water Surface and Water-Land Interface Area 217
8.3.5 “Ground-truth” for Remote Sensing Models 219
8.4 Conclusion and Outlook 221
Appendix 1 Derivation of Formulas for Variance of Log-Amplitude and Refractive Index Structure Parameter 225
Appendix 2 The Major Development and Application Research of Scintillometry Since 1990 230
Acknowledgements 234
Further Monographs 235
Abbreviations and Symbols 236
References 240